From: Joseph Roth <jnr2107@columbia.edu>
  To  : <CPC@emoglen.law.columbia.edu>
  Date: Fri, 21 Apr 2006 19:25:30 -0400

paper 1.

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In Bloggers v. Journalists is Over, Rosen argues that the debate over
whether blogs can be journalism is obsolete. They can be.[i] This period =
of
transition poses many difficult questions, some of which Rosen attempts =
to
face. I want to go a different direction and explore whether we should =
care
as a legal and constitutional matter.=20

There is no meaningful way to exclude a form of speech like blogging =
from
=93the press=94 in the era of cheap, widespread online publication. =
Regarding
function, both mediums express views, share news, and may get revenue =
from
selling advertising. The existence of a hierarchical structure, such as =
a
newsroom might have, is not a required element. For example, the Court =
has
embraced the notion that pamphlets and leaflets are the press.[ii]
Readership also cannot be a basis for distinction. Daily Kos probably =
gets
more hits each day than the Tombstone Tumbleweed weekly newspaper has =
ever
had. The point here is not to give an exhaustive argument that blogs are
press, but instead to say that Rosen is right; the debate is over.=20

In order to answer whether it should matter that blogs and other similar
forms can be the press, it is necessary to outline why the press matters =
in
the first place. Potter Stewart defends =93the press=94 as a structural
necessity built into the Constitutional system.[iii] That is, the press =
is a
structural check on the branches of the government. The press is not =
merely
a conduit of information or a forum for the marketplace of ideas; it =
serves
a constitutional checking purpose by scrutinizing the actions of
government.[iv] Justice Stewart perhaps overemphasizes the distinction
between speech and press, but the point is still relevant. A core =
purpose of
freedom of expression, and perhaps a purpose particularly well-served by =
the
press, is to act as a check on elected officials and hopefully establish
some trust in the electoral process. For example, in his response to the
1798 Sedition Act, Madison argued that the freedom to publicize items =
that
might bring contempt or disrepute of public officials is a necessity in =
a
system of republican government where there is a basic assumption that
elected officials are fallible.[v]A more modern example of this =
principle in
action is the Pentagon Papers case, where Justice Black, in concurrence,
wrote that =93paramount among the responsibilities of a free press is =
the duty
to prevent any part of the government from deceiving the people and =
sending
them off to distant lands to die of foreign fevers and foreign shot and
shell.=94[vi] The importance of that purpose today is obvious when we =
are only
aware of the NSA wiretap issue because the press discovered it and
publicized it.

The newly democratized press, with power devolving to the =93citizen =
media=94 of
which blogs are a major part, matters a great deal. It is my contention =
that
not only is one of the founding principles of =93the press=94 still =
relevant, as
noted above, but that the decentralized and widespread electronic press =
is
crucial to a fuller achievement of that purpose and thus the law should
reflect that importance. First, blogs enjoy widespread access. All it =
takes
is an internet connection. This is something to which the institutional
press has tried to adapt and the impact is far-reaching. For example, =
the
New York Times reported that it gets about 20 million unique visitors =
each
month.[vii] The breadth of potential readership is an important =
component
based on the simple argument that the more informed more voters are, the
better the electoral system can monitor official behavior.

 Second, and integral to the first, the interconnectivity of the =
blogosphere
is a powerful tool. Previously, if the local paper did not cover some =
story,
the average person had limited and costly options to get more =
information on
current events. Now, the easy interconnectivity between blogs and
institutional press makes blogs a valuable source of information. They =
can
act as both a distributor and source by discussing stories and linking =
to
stories published around the web. This can help a voter get a fuller set =
of
information from which to make choices about candidates, policies, or =
other
governmental action. Another feature of the interconnectivity is the
interaction between journalist and reader provided by the comments =
features
many blogs support. Readers can engage in an argument about the story or
give links to other relevant information, and under the assumption that =
more
open discussion and more open access to information provides a better
polity, this is a good thing in an electoral system.

Third, the anonymity possible with blogs might prove to be a powerful =
source
of valuable information about government action. A whistleblower, =
instead of
speaking through a proxy journalist, might break the story herself on =
her
blog. This is an area where the law about the press can immediately have =
a
positive impact on the checking power of the press by extending the
privilege to protect anonymous sources. While a Constitutional =
journalist=92s
privilege to protect sources is a doubtful proposition[viii], a =
statutory
protection exists in many states. For example, the New York law only =
gives
immunity from contempt if the =93professional=94 does the news for =
=93gain or
livelihood=94 for print with a =93paid circulation.=94[ix] If the =
anonymous
blogger can be considered to be her own anonymous source, then perhaps =
the
law should extend the privilege to non-institutional journalists. The
government already protects whistle-blowers in various ways, such as
prohibiting retaliatory firing.[x] If the people consider it important =
to
give incentive to whistle-blowing now, then it is not a stretch to find =
the
protection of their anonymity on the web a valuable extension of the
statutory reporter=92s privilege.=20

Changing the law to reflect the technological changes that have made
citizen-journalists a powerful source of news is important to serve the
constitutional purpose of bringing accountability to elected officials, =
from
the dog-walker to the president.=20

=20

(word count =96 978)


  _____ =20

[i] Jay Rosen, Bloggers vs. Journalism is Over, Pressthink, at
http://journalism.nyu.edu/pubzone/weblogs/pressthink/2005/01/15/berk_pprd=
_p.
html (Jan. 15, 2005).

[ii] Lovell v. City of Griffin, Georgia, 303 U.S. 444, 452 (1938).

[iii] Potter Stewart, Or of the Press, 26 Hastings L.J. 631, 633
(1974-1975).

[iv] Id. at 634.=20

[v] James Madison, Report on the Virginia Resolutions (Jan., 1800),
available at
http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/amendI_speechs24.html. =


[vi] New York Times Co. v. United States, 403 U.S. 713, 717 (1971) =
(Black,
J., concurring).

[vii] Joseph Nocera, Trying to Wean Internet Users From Free, N.Y. =
Times,
November 12, 2005.

[viii] See In re Grand Jury Subpoena, Judith Miller, 397 F.3d 964, 972 =
(D.C.
Cir. 2005) (declining to follow J. Powell=92s concurrence in Branzburg =
v.
Hayes, 408 U.S. 665 (1972), and holding that =93the Supreme Court in no
uncertain terms rejected the existence of such a privilege=94).

[ix] N.Y. Civ. Rights. Law =A7 79-h(a)(6), (b) (2006).

[x] E.g., N.Y. Lab. Law =A7 740 (2006).=20


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<p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'text-indent:.5in'><font size=3D3 =
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>In <i><span =
style=3D'font-style:italic'>Bloggers v.
Journalists is Over</span></i>, Rosen argues that the debate over =
whether blogs
can be journalism is obsolete. They can be.<a =
style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn1'
href=3D"#_edn1" name=3D"_ednref1" title=3D""><span =
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New =
Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[i]</span></font></sup></span></sup></span></a>
This period of transition poses many difficult questions, some of which =
Rosen
attempts to face. I want to go a different direction and explore whether =
we
should care as a legal and constitutional matter. =
<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>

<p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'text-indent:.5in'><font size=3D3 =
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>There is no meaningful way to exclude a form =
of speech
like blogging from “the press” in the era of cheap, =
widespread
online publication. Regarding function, both mediums express views, =
share news,
and may get revenue from selling advertising. The existence of a =
hierarchical
structure, such as a newsroom might have, is not a required element. For
example, the Court has embraced the notion that pamphlets and leaflets =
are the
press.<a style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn2' href=3D"#_edn2" name=3D"_ednref2" =
title=3D""><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><span =
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font
size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span =
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[ii]</span></font></sup></span></sup></span></a>
Readership also cannot be a basis for distinction. Daily <st1:place =
w:st=3D"on">Kos</st1:place>
probably gets more hits each day than the Tombstone Tumbleweed weekly =
newspaper
has ever had. The point here is not to give an exhaustive argument that =
blogs
are press, but instead to say that Rosen is right; the debate is over. =
<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>

<p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'text-indent:.5in'><font size=3D3 =
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>In order to answer whether it should matter =
that blogs
and other similar forms can be the press, it is necessary to outline why =
the press
matters in the first place. Potter Stewart defends “the =
press” as a
structural necessity built into the Constitutional system.<a =
style=3D'mso-endnote-id:
edn3' href=3D"#_edn3" name=3D"_ednref3" title=3D""><span =
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New =
Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[iii]</span></font></sup></span></sup></span></a>
That is, the press is a structural check on the branches of the =
government. The
press is not merely a conduit of information or a forum for the =
marketplace of
ideas; it serves a constitutional checking purpose by scrutinizing the =
actions
of government.<a style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn4' href=3D"#_edn4" =
name=3D"_ednref4"
title=3D""><span class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><span =
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font
size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span =
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[iv]</span></font></sup></span></sup></span></a>
Justice Stewart perhaps overemphasizes the distinction between speech =
and
press, but the point is still relevant. A core purpose of freedom of
expression, and perhaps a purpose particularly well-served by the press, =
is to act
as a check on elected officials and hopefully establish some trust in =
the
electoral process. For example, in his response to the 1798 Sedition =
Act, <st1:place
w:st=3D"on"><st1:City w:st=3D"on">Madison</st1:City></st1:place> argued =
that the
freedom to publicize items that might bring contempt or disrepute of =
public
officials is a necessity in a system of republican government where =
there is a
basic assumption that elected officials are fallible.<a =
style=3D'mso-endnote-id:
edn5' href=3D"#_edn5" name=3D"_ednref5" title=3D""><span =
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New =
Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[v]</span></font></sup></span></sup></span></a>A
more modern example of this principle in action is the Pentagon Papers =
case,
where Justice Black, in concurrence, wrote that “<span
class=3Ddocumentbody>paramount among the responsibilities of a free =
press is the
duty to prevent any part of the government from deceiving the people and
sending them off to distant lands to die of foreign fevers and foreign =
shot and
shell.”</span><a style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn6' href=3D"#_edn6" =
name=3D"_ednref6"
title=3D""><span class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><span =
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font
size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span =
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[vi]</span></font></sup></span></sup></span></a><span
class=3Ddocumentbody> The importance of that purpose today is obvious =
when we are
only aware of the NSA wiretap issue because the press discovered it and =
publicized
it.<o:p></o:p></span></span></font></p>

<p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'text-indent:.5in'><span =
class=3Ddocumentbody><font
size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>The =
newly
democratized press, with power devolving to the “citizen =
media” of
which blogs are a major part, matters a great deal. It is my contention =
that
not only is one of the founding principles of “the press” =
still
relevant, as noted above, but that the decentralized and widespread =
electronic
press is crucial to a fuller achievement of that purpose and thus the =
law should
reflect that importance. First, blogs enjoy widespread access. All it =
takes is
an internet connection. This is something to which the institutional =
press has tried
to adapt and the impact is far-reaching. For example, the New York Times
reported that it gets about 20 million unique visitors each =
month.</span></font></span><a
style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn7' href=3D"#_edn7" name=3D"_ednref7" =
title=3D""><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><span =
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font
size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span =
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[vii]</span></font></sup></span></sup></span></a><span
class=3Ddocumentbody> The breadth of potential readership is an =
important component
based on the simple argument that the more informed more voters are, the =
better
the electoral system can monitor official =
behavior.<o:p></o:p></span></p>

<p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'text-indent:.5in'><span =
class=3Ddocumentbody><font
size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span =
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>=A0Second, and
integral to the first, the interconnectivity of the blogosphere is a =
powerful
tool. Previously, if the local paper did not cover some story, the =
average
person had limited and costly options to get more information on current
events. Now, the easy interconnectivity between blogs and institutional =
press
makes blogs a valuable source of information. They can act as both a
distributor and source by discussing stories and linking to stories =
published
around the web. This can help a voter get a fuller set of information =
from
which to make choices about candidates, policies, or other governmental =
action.
Another feature of the interconnectivity is the interaction between =
journalist
and reader provided by the comments features many blogs support. Readers =
can
engage in an argument about the story or give links to other relevant
information, and under the assumption that more open discussion and more =
open
access to information provides a better polity, this is a good thing in =
an
electoral system.<o:p></o:p></span></font></span></p>

<p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'text-indent:.5in'><span =
class=3Ddocumentbody><font
size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span =
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>Third, the
anonymity possible with blogs might prove to be a powerful source of =
valuable
information about government action. A whistleblower, instead of =
speaking
through a proxy journalist, might break the story herself on her blog. =
This is
an area where the law about the press can immediately have a positive =
impact on
the checking power of the press by extending the privilege to protect =
anonymous
sources. While a Constitutional journalist’s privilege to protect =
sources
is a doubtful proposition</span></font></span><a =
style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn8'
href=3D"#_edn8" name=3D"_ednref8" title=3D""><span =
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font size=3D3 face=3D"Times New =
Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[viii]</span></font></sup></span></sup></span></a><span
class=3Ddocumentbody>, a statutory protection exists in many states. For =
example,
the <st1:place w:st=3D"on"><st1:State w:st=3D"on">New =
York</st1:State></st1:place>
law only gives immunity from contempt if the “professional” =
does
the news for “gain or livelihood” for print with a =
“paid circulation.”</span><a
style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn9' href=3D"#_edn9" name=3D"_ednref9" =
title=3D""><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><span =
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font
size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span =
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[ix]</span></font></sup></span></sup></span></a><span
class=3Ddocumentbody> If the anonymous blogger can be considered to be =
her own
anonymous source, then perhaps the law should extend the privilege to
non-institutional journalists. The government already protects =
whistle-blowers
in various ways, such as prohibiting retaliatory firing.</span><a
style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn10' href=3D"#_edn10" name=3D"_ednref10" =
title=3D""><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><span =
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font
size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span =
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[x]</span></font></sup></span></sup></span></a><span
class=3Ddocumentbody> If the people consider it important to give =
incentive to
whistle-blowing now, then it is not a stretch to find the protection of =
their
anonymity on the web a valuable extension of the statutory =
reporter’s
privilege. <o:p></o:p></span></p>

<p class=3DMsoNormal style=3D'text-indent:.5in'><span =
class=3Ddocumentbody><font
size=3D3 face=3D"Times New Roman"><span =
style=3D'font-size:12.0pt'>Changing the law
to reflect the technological changes that have made citizen-journalists =
a
powerful source of news is important to serve the constitutional purpose =
of
bringing accountability to elected officials, from the dog-walker to the
president. </span></font></span><o:p></o:p></p>

<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D2 face=3DArial><span =
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;
font-family:Arial'><o:p> </o:p></span></font></p>

<p class=3DMsoNormal><font size=3D2 face=3DArial><span =
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;
font-family:Arial'>(word count – 978)<o:p></o:p></span></font></p>

</div>

<div style=3D'mso-element:endnote-list'><br clear=3Dall>

<hr align=3Dleft size=3D1 width=3D"33%">

<div style=3D'mso-element:endnote' id=3Dedn1>

<p class=3DMsoEndnoteText><a style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn1' =
href=3D"#_ednref1"
name=3D"_edn1" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font =
size=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font size=3D2 face=3D"Times New =
Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[i]</span></font></sup></span></span></font></sup></span></a>
Jay Rosen, <i><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>Bloggers vs. Journalism =
is Over</span></i>,
Pressthink, <i><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>at =
</span></i>http://journalism.nyu.edu/pubzone/weblogs/pressthink/2005/01/1=
5/berk_pprd_p.html
(Jan. 15, 2005).</p>

</div>

<div style=3D'mso-element:endnote' id=3Dedn2>

<p class=3DMsoEndnoteText><a style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn2' =
href=3D"#_ednref2"
name=3D"_edn2" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font =
size=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font size=3D2 face=3D"Times New =
Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[ii]</span></font></sup></span></span></font></sup></span></a>
<i><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>Lovell v. <st1:City =
w:st=3D"on">City of
 Griffin</st1:City>, <st1:country-region =
w:st=3D"on">Georgia</st1:country-region></span></i>,
303 <st1:place w:st=3D"on"><st1:country-region =
w:st=3D"on">U.S.</st1:country-region></st1:place>
444, 452 (1938).</p>

</div>

<div style=3D'mso-element:endnote' id=3Dedn3>

<p class=3DMsoEndnoteText><a style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn3' =
href=3D"#_ednref3"
name=3D"_edn3" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font =
size=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font size=3D2 face=3D"Times New =
Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[iii]</span></font></sup></span></span></font></sup></span></a>
Potter Stewart, <i><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>Or of the =
Press</span></i>,
26 <st1:place w:st=3D"on"><st1:City w:st=3D"on"><span =
style=3D'font-variant:small-caps'>Hastings</span></st1:City></st1:place><=
span
style=3D'font-variant:small-caps'> L.J. 631, 633 =
(1974-1975).<o:p></o:p></span></p>

</div>

<div style=3D'mso-element:endnote' id=3Dedn4>

<p class=3DMsoEndnoteText><a style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn4' =
href=3D"#_ednref4"
name=3D"_edn4" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font =
size=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font size=3D2 face=3D"Times New =
Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[iv]</span></font></sup></span></span></font></sup></span></a>
<st1:place w:st=3D"on"><st1:State w:st=3D"on"><i><span =
style=3D'font-style:italic'>Id.</span></i></st1:State></st1:place>
at 634. </p>

</div>

<div style=3D'mso-element:endnote' id=3Dedn5>

<p class=3DMsoEndnoteText><a style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn5' =
href=3D"#_ednref5"
name=3D"_edn5" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font =
size=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font size=3D2 face=3D"Times New =
Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[v]</span></font></sup></span></span></font></sup></span></a>
James Madison, <i><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>Report on the =
<st1:State
w:st=3D"on"><st1:place w:st=3D"on">Virginia</st1:place></st1:State> =
Resolutions</span></i>
(Jan., 1800), <i><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>available at =
</span></i>http://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/amendI_speec=
hs24.html.
</p>

</div>

<div style=3D'mso-element:endnote' id=3Dedn6>

<p class=3DMsoEndnoteText><a style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn6' =
href=3D"#_ednref6"
name=3D"_edn6" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font =
size=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font size=3D2 face=3D"Times New =
Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[vi]</span></font></sup></span></span></font></sup></span></a>
<i><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>New York Times Co. v. =
<st1:country-region
w:st=3D"on">United States</st1:country-region></span></i>, 403 =
<st1:place w:st=3D"on"><st1:country-region
 w:st=3D"on">U.S.</st1:country-region></st1:place> 713, 717 (1971) =
(Black, J.,
concurring).</p>

</div>

<div style=3D'mso-element:endnote' id=3Dedn7>

<p class=3DMsoEndnoteText><a style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn7' =
href=3D"#_ednref7"
name=3D"_edn7" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font =
size=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font size=3D2 face=3D"Times New =
Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[vii]</span></font></sup></span></span></font></sup></span></a>
Joseph Nocera, <i><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>Trying to Wean =
Internet Users
From Free</span></i>, N.Y. Times, November 12, 2005.</p>

</div>

<div style=3D'mso-element:endnote' id=3Dedn8>

<p class=3DMsoEndnoteText><a style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn8' =
href=3D"#_ednref8"
name=3D"_edn8" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font =
size=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font size=3D2 face=3D"Times New =
Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[viii]</span></font></sup></span></span></font></sup></span></a>
<i><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>See In re Grand Jury Subpoena, =
Judith Miller</span></i>,
397 F.3d 964, 972 (D.C. Cir. 2005) (declining to follow J. =
Powell’s
concurrence in <i><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>Branzburg v. =
Hayes</span></i>,
408 U.S. 665 (1972), and holding that “the Supreme Court in no =
uncertain
terms rejected the existence of such a privilege”).</p>

</div>

<div style=3D'mso-element:endnote' id=3Dedn9>

<p class=3DMsoEndnoteText><a style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn9' =
href=3D"#_ednref9"
name=3D"_edn9" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font =
size=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font size=3D2 face=3D"Times New =
Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[ix]</span></font></sup></span></span></font></sup></span></a>
N.Y. <span style=3D'font-variant:small-caps'>Civ. Rights. Law</span> =A7
79-h(a)(6), (b) (2006).</p>

</div>

<div style=3D'mso-element:endnote' id=3Dedn10>

<p class=3DMsoEndnoteText><a style=3D'mso-endnote-id:edn10' =
href=3D"#_ednref10"
name=3D"_edn10" title=3D""><span class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font =
size=3D2
face=3D"Times New Roman"><span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt'><span
class=3DMsoEndnoteReference><sup><font size=3D2 face=3D"Times New =
Roman"><span
style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Times New =
Roman"'>[x]</span></font></sup></span></span></font></sup></span></a>
<i><span style=3D'font-style:italic'>E.g., </span></i>N.Y. <span
style=3D'font-variant:small-caps'>Lab. Law =A7 740 (2006). </span></p>

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